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In more ways than one. it is not only about residual confounding from missing out on covariates. It is also about the fact that different combinations of confounders can swing the outcome in opposite directions. It's called vibration of effects (VoE) and plagues roughly two-thirds of exposure variables, alcohol being one of them.

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Dr. Lutz Kraushaar
Dr. Lutz Kraushaar

Written by Dr. Lutz Kraushaar

PhD in Health Sciences, MSc. Exrx & Nutrition, International Author, Researcher in decelerating biological aging. Keynote Speaker and Consultant.

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